篇一：自考英语词汇学笔记整理
自考英语词汇学笔记整理 Chapter 1
1 - The definition of a word comprises the following points: (1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. language A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic
function. 1 词定义包括以下几点： （ 1 ）一门语言中最小的自由形式; （ 2 ）一个声音的统一体 （ 3 ）一个意义单位; （ 4 ）在一个句子中独立起作用的一个形式。 词是一门语言中具有一定的声音 一门语言中具有一定的声音、 词是一门语言中具有一定的声音、意义和句法功能的最小的自由形式
2- Sound and Meaning: symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 2 -声音和意义：象征性联系几乎总是任意和约定成俗的 狗称为狗不是因为这个声音以及这三个字母在一起就能自动表示这种动物。
3- Old English, the speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination. 3 –古代英语，随着语言的发展，声音和形式之间的差异越来越大。产生这种差异的内在原因是英语拼 写采用了拉丁字母，从而使英语中的每个音位并不能都用单独的字母来表示，有些字母必须起双重职能或组 合在一起来表示一个音
4 Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart. 另一个原因是，发音比拼写变化的快，在某些情况下，两者产生了很大的差异。 A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes. 第三个原因是，是由于早期抄写僧所造成的一些差异。 Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of eiching the English vocabulary. 最后一个原因是外来词。外来词是丰富了英语词汇的重要途径。
5 - Vocabulary: All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over million words. 5 -词汇：一门语言中所有的词构成该语言的词汇。―词汇‖一词具有多重含义。它不仅可以指一门语言的词汇量，还可以指某一特制定时期的词汇。我们还可以用该词指称某一方言 的词汇、某一本书的词汇、某一学科的词汇，甚至还可指某个人的词汇量。英语是世界上高度发达的语言之一，也是词汇量最大、最丰富的语言之一。据初步统计，当代英语词汇量已达 100 多万词。
6 - Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin. 按使用频率分，词可以分为基本词汇和非基本词汇;按有无实义来分，词可以分为实义词和功能词；按起源 分，它又可分为本族语词和外来语词。
7 - The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part of it. These words have
obvious characteristics.-一门语言的基本词汇是长期积累下来的，是该语言的共核。虽然英语中的基本词汇只占总词汇量的一小部分，但却是最重要的部分。基本词汇 具有下列明显的特点。
8 - All national character. Words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people language。 relating who speak the language。They include words relating to the following respects: Natural phenomena/Human body and relations/Names of plants and animals/Action, size, domain,
state/Numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions 全民性。基本词汇指称我们周围世界最常见的食物和现象，是讲这门语言的人们所必不可少的。基本词汇包 括以下几个方面相关的词：自然现象/人体和人们之间的关系/动、植物名称/行为、尺寸、范畴，状态/数词、 代词、介词、连词等
9 - Stability. Words of the basic word stock have been in use for centuries.-稳定 性。基本词汇长期为人们所使用。
10 Productivity . Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words.They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes.能产性。基本词汇大多根词或单音节词。他们可以分别单独使用，也可以和其他根源和词缀一起构成新词。
11 - Polysemy. Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undertone semantic changes in the course of use and become
polysemous.多义词。基本词中的词由于长期使用过程中产生了语义变化，単义变成了多义。 12 - Collocability . Many words of the basic word stock quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings and the like. –搭配性。基本词汇中的许多词形成了诸多固定的词语，惯用用法，习语和谚语等。 Words, void of the stated characteristics, do not belong to the commom core of the language. they include the following.不具备上述特点的词不属于改语言的共核，包括：
13 - Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas 术语。是指特定学科和叙述领域所使用的专有名词。
14 - Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business.-行话。是流行于艺术，科学，商业和其他职业内部的专有名词。
15 - Slang belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the
standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant, jargon, and argot, all of which are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population. -俚语属非标准语言，介于一般标准词汇和团体内部用词 之间，如套语、行话和黑语，都在特定人群中流行。 Slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages altogether. Slang is colorful, blunt, expressive and 2 impressive. 俚语大多还是由现有词汇语义的改变或引申，只有少数是自创的，俚语在表达上富有色彩，直接，表现力强，效果明显。
16 - Argot generally refers to the jargon of criminals 黑话通常指罪犯的行话.
17 - Dialectal words are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question. 方言词限于讲方言的人所使用。
18 - Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.古语词是指过去曾经广泛使用而现在仅限于某些特殊用法的词。
19 - Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.-新词语是指新创造的词语或又产生新义的旧词。
20 - By notion, words can be grouped into content words and functional words. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs,
adjectives,adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity. 20 词汇可以根据有无实义分为实义词和功能词。实义词表示明确的概念，它们包括名词，动词，形容词，副词和数词，表示事物、现象、行动、物质、状态、程度、数量等。 21 - Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category. 21 –功能词本身不具有实义，因此又称为虚词。虚词就是表示两个实义之间的关系以及词与词之间、句子 与句子之间的关系，也可称为形式词。虚词有介词，连词，助动词和冠词。
22 - However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words. -然而在英语中，功能词比实义词起着更重要的作用。
23 - Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes; the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words 英 语本族语词是公元 5 世纪由日耳曼部落盎格鲁人、萨克逊人和朱特人带入英国的，又称盎格鲁-萨克逊词语。
24 - Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features: 除了上文提到的英语基本词汇的共同特点外，与外来语词相比，本族语词还有另外两个特点： 1）Neutral in style. they are not stylistically specific. 文体上中性。文体上有什么特定的色彩。 Stylistically, natives words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary and learned, thus
appropiate in formal style. 从文体上来讲，本族语词无所谓正式或者不正式，而来源于法语和拉丁语的外来词富有文学色彩，为有学问人所用，使用的场合也较为正式。 2）Frequent in use. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. 使用频繁。本族语词在日常口语和书面语中使用的最为频繁。
25 - Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms. It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modem English vocabulary. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings 来自其他语言的词简称为外来词或者借词。英英语中源于其他主要语言的借词有很多，据估计，现代英语词汇有 80%是借词。由于广泛地使用借词，英语中的词汇呈现极为复杂而不纯的局面。
26 According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing,we can bring the loan-words under four classes.根据同化的程度和借词的方式，可以把外来语词归为 4 类。 1）Denizens. denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into the English language.同化词是指早期从其他语言中借来现今已被英语通话了的词。 2）Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately
recognizable as foreign in origin -非同化词是仍保留他们原来的发音和拼写形式的词。仅从发音和拼写形式我们便可看出这些词是外来词. 3）Translation-loans. they are words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling.译借词，是利用母语现有的词语但在构词模式上模仿了外语而构成的词。 4）Semantic-loans. Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new
meaning for an existing word in the language. 借义词，只借义，不借形。换句话说，英语利用现有词的形式赋予其新的外来语含义。
Chapter 2
1 - It is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.-据估计，世界上约有 3 000 多种（有人认为 5 000 种 ）语言，这些语言可以根据他们的基本词汇和语法的相似性大致划分为 300 个谱系。
2 - The Indo-European is one of them. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East, and India. -印欧语就是其中之一。该语系包括欧洲的大多数语言、近东诸语言和古梵语。
3 - They accordingly fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic , Indo-Iranian , Armenian and Albanian ; a Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic,
Germanic. 3 这些语族相应地分为 8 大语族，这 8 大语族又可分为东部诸语族。东部诸语族有波罗的海-斯拉夫语族，印 度-伊朗语族，亚美尼亚-阿尔巴尼亚语族;西部诸语族有凯尔特语族，意大利语族，希腊语族，日耳曼语族。
4 - In the Eastern set, Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively. The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech,
Bulgarian, Slovenian and Russian. 4，在东部诸语族中，亚美尼亚-阿尔巴尼亚语族都只留下今天的亚美尼亚语和阿尔巴尼亚语。波罗的海-斯 拉夫语族包括普鲁士语，立陶宛语，波兰语，捷克语，保加利亚语，斯洛文尼亚语和俄语等。
5 - In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian. Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit. 5 -印度-伊朗语族语族波斯语。孟加拉国语，印地语，普吉赛语，后 3 门语言来源于已经消亡的古梵语。
6 - In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. 6 -在西部诸语族中，现代希腊语来源于古希腊语族。
7 - The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian,
Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English. 7 -日耳曼语族包括 4 门北欧语言：挪威语，冰岛语，丹麦语和瑞典语，这 4 门语言统称为斯堪的纳维亚 语。其次是德语，荷兰语，佛兰芒语和英语。
8 - Old English (450-1150) Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60, 000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like moderm German. 4 8 盎格鲁-撒克逊语被称为古英语。古英语约有 50000 至 60000 词汇。而且也如现代德语一样是一门典型的 屈折语。
9 - Middle English (1150-1500) -中古英语（ 1150 年至一五〇 〇年） Although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic. Between 1250 and 1500 about 9000 words of French origin poured into English. Seventy-five percent of them are still in use today. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings. Middle English was one of leveled endings. 9 虽然英语也从拉丁语中借词，但影响英语的主要还是日耳曼语。 从 1250 年到 1500 年的 250 年间，大约有 9000 个法语词汇进入到英语中，其中 75%仍在使用。这些
词语人类社会的各个方面都有关系。 如果说古英语近视此为的话，那么中古英语的词尾已去了一半
10 - Modern English (1500-up to now) -现代英语（ 1500 到现在） Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England. 现代英语开始于印刷术传入英国。 Early (1500-1700) and Late (1700-up to the present) Modern English 现在英语分为早期（ 1500 至 1700 年）现代英语和晚期（ 1700 -至今）现代英语 In the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics. This is known in history as the
Renaissance. 在早期现代英语阶段，欧洲掀起了学习希腊和罗马的古典著作的运动。这场运动史称文艺复兴。 Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world‘s great literary heritage and of great scholarship. 当时拉丁语和希腊语被认为是达标西方世界灿烂文学遗产的语言，是学术语言 In fact, more than twenty-five percent of modern English words come almost directly from classical languages. 事实上，现代英语词汇中有 25%以上几乎是直接从古典语言中直接介入的（WBD）。 In modern English, word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language.在现代英语中，除了少数几个词之外，词尾几乎都消失了。可以这样说，英语已从古英语的综合型语言发展成了现在的分析型语言 。
11 - Three main sources of new words: the rapid development of modern science and technology 45 ％ ） social, economic and political changes 11 ％ ） the influence （ ; （ ; of other cultures and languages（ 24 ％ ）. 11 -新词的产生有 3 大来源：现代科学和技术的迅猛发展（ 45 ％） ;社会，经济和政治的变化（ 11 ％ ） ; 其它文化和语言的影响（ 24 ％ ）。 12 - Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing. 现代英语词汇的发展主要通过三个渠道：创词、旧词新义和借词。
13.Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In modern times, this is the most important way of vocabulary
expansion. 创造是指通过使用现有的材料，即词根，词缀和其它形式创造新词。这是词汇词汇扩展的最重要的形式。 Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. This does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new usages of the words, thus eiching the vocabulary. 旧词新义是指赋予旧有新词新的含义以满足新的需要。这一方式不增加词得数量，但却创造了词的许多新用法，以丰富词汇。 5 Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times. Borrowed words constitute merely six to seven percent of all new worlds. In earlier stages of English, French, Greek and Scandinavian were the major contributors.借词在词汇的发展中起了重要的作用，尤其是在早期。借词在所有新词中，借词只占 6%。英语在早期阶段主要是向法语、拉丁语、希腊语和斯堪的纳维亚语借词。 Reviving archaic or obsolete words(复活古词和废弃词) also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant. 复活古词和废弃词对整个英语词汇来说虽然影响不大，但却是是一种发展方式。
Chapter 3
1 - These different forms occur owing to different sound environment. These minimal
meaningful units are known as morphemes. In other words, the morpheme is "the smallest
functioning unit in the composition of words" 1 –在不同的发音环境下以不同形式出现。这些最小的有意义单位称为词素。 换言之，词素是―构词中最小功能单位‖
篇二：自考英语词汇学翻译精华整理
English Lexicology(英语词汇学)
1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学旨在调查和研究英语单词和单词的等价物的形态结构,其语义结构、关系、历史发展、形成和用法。
2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论） and lexicography(词典学) Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary
1.Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence
词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。
2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself” 词语是一个符号，代表着世界上其他的事物。每种世界文化已经赞成一定的读音将代表一定的人，事，地方，特性，过程，行动，当然是在语言系统之外。这种象征性的联系几乎总是主观的，并且“在代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系”
3.Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other内因是因为英语字母表采用罗马字母，罗马字母没有独立的字母代表每个读音，因此一些字母代表两个读音或者组合在一起发音。
（2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years另一个原因是发音比拼写的变化快，在一些时候还拉开了距离。在最近五百年里，尽管口语发音已经出现了显著的变化，却没有相应的拼写变化。
（3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes第三个原因是一些早期的书写员发明了一些不同。（4）the borrowings is an important channel of eiching the English vocabulary最后借词来了，这是丰富英语词汇的重要途径。
（5）printing印刷已经变得非常普及。它有助于固定单词的拼写、standardization标准化使得拼写不容改变。、dictionary字典在拼写终结中得到好处。
—Old English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. 古代英语中的口语比今天更忠实的代表书面语
—The written form of English is an imperfect representation of the spoken form。英语的书写是发音形式不完善的代表
4.What is vocabulary？
（1）Total number of the words in a language一个语言的单词综合
（2）Words used in a particular historical period 特殊历史时期使用的单词
（3）All the words of a dialect，a book ，a discipline...某个方言，书籍，学科中的所有单词 5. Classification of English Words：英语词汇由所有种类的词汇组成。它们可以根据不同的标准或者不同的目的进行分类。
By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary根据使用频率，单词可以分为基础词和非基础词。
By notion:content words&functional words可以根据概念分成实词和虚词
By origin:native words&borrowed words可以根据来源分为本地词和借词。
6. The basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary. 基础词是几世纪积累的词汇的基础，构成语言的核心。尽管基础词占英语词汇比例小，它仍然是最重要的组成部分。
7. The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的基本特征):
1)All-National character（全民通用性most important） 2)Stability（相对稳定性 relative）
3)Productivity（多产性 are mostly root words or monosyllabic words） 4)Polysemy（多义性）
5)Collocability（可搭配性）
8. nonbasic vocabulary(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话） (3)slang（俚语） (4)Argot（暗语） （5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email) 是新建立的词或者表达，或者已经采用新意的词。
9.— Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine、in mathematics、in music、in education. 包括特定学科的技术术语和学术领域 —Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves用于特定的词汇，通过特定艺术，科学，商业和专业领域的成员在彼此之间交流
—Slang belongs to the sub-standard language ,a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant, jargon, and argot俚语粗话属于低等语言，处在标准通用语言，（包括每人用的非正式词汇）和团体内部语言包括cant(任何下等团体的行话)，jargons,argot
10. slang is colourful, blunt, expressive and impressive俚语生动，直率，印象深刻而且感人
11. Certain words are labeled 'slang' not because their appearance or pronunciation but because of their usage特定词被标示为“俚语”不是因为他们的写法和发音，而是因为他们的用法
12. Content words/notional words实词
Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals内容词表示清楚的概念，因为被认为是概念词。他们包括名词，动词。形容词，副词和数词
13. functional words/empty words虚词
Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category. 功能词没有他们自己的概念。因此，他们也称作“空词”。由于他们的主要功能是去表达概念间的关系，词语间和句子间的关系，他们被认为是“结构词”。介词，连词，辅助词和冠词属于这一类
14.区别：
Content words, which constitute the main body of the English vocabulary, are numerous, and the number is ever growing whereas functional words, which make up a very small number of the vocabulary, remain stable. However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words 内容词，构成了英语词汇的主体，是数量多的。并且那数量还在增长，然而，功能词，只占词汇的很少一部分，保持稳定。然而，功能词比内容词在表达上做了更多的工作
15. Native words本地词：1. Neutral in style风格中性2. Frequent in use使用频繁
（1）Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number, amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000盎格鲁撒克逊源头词数量很少，大约在50000到60000之间
（2）they form the mainstream of the basic word stock 他们构成了基本词汇的主流
（3）stand at the core of the language处在语言的核心
16. Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms从外国带来的词被认为是“借词”“借代词”或者“所借的”
17. Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into the English language. 同化词是过去早期借词，现在很好的同化进了英语
Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling非同化词是保留了原始发音和拼写的借词
Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language. 翻译借词是从英语中的现有材料中取材构成，但是模仿其他语言的构成方式。
Semantic-loans. Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. 借义词这类词不是参考形式借来，但是他们的意义是借来的。
Chapter 2 the development of the English Vocabulary第二章 英语词汇的发展
1. The English language is not the language of the early inhabitants of the British Isles. 英语不
是英国群岛上原住民的语言。
2. The Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)
The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）
The Eastern set:
（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech,
Bulgarian, Slovenian and Russian普鲁士语，立陶宛语，波兰语，捷克语，保加利亚语，斯洛文尼亚语，俄语
（2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany波斯语，孟加拉语，印地语，吉普赛语
(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.
(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.
The Western set:
(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.
(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc. 五种拉丁语言，就是葡萄牙语，西班牙语，法语，意大利语，罗马尼亚语都属于意大利语系
(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton, etc苏格兰语，爱尔兰语，威尔士语，布里多尼语等
(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：
German, Dutch, Flemish and English,Scandinavian(Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish) etc. ，德语，荷兰语，弗兰德语和英语 （挪威语， 冰岛语，丹麦语和瑞典语）这些都被称作斯堪的纳维亚语言
3.A historical overview of the English Vocabulary英语词汇的历史概述
（1）The first inhabitants were Celts. Their languages were Celtic. 现在所指最早的居民是凯尔特人，他们的语言仍然是印欧语系的另一分支凯尔特语的方言
（2）The second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions. In 55-54
B.C., the Romans invaded the British Isles英国的第二种主要语言是罗马军团的拉丁语，在公元前55到54年，罗马人入侵英伦群岛
（3）Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary凯尔特语只对英语词汇有很小的贡献
4. Old English (450-1150) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000)= Anglo-Saxon
（1）Latin-speaking Roman missionaries under came to spread Christianity in Britain at the end of the 6th century. 在6世纪末期，拉丁语的罗马传教士来传播基督教
（2）users of Old English did not borrow as heavily from Latin or other languages in this period as they did later古代英语的使用者并不像他们后来做的那样大量从拉丁和其他语言借词
（3）The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words.handbook通常情况用组合两个本地词的形式来创造新词
（4）many Scandinavian words came into the English language许多斯堪的纳维亚词汇进入
了英语
（5）it was a high inflected language with complex endings它是高度转折的语言正象现代的德语
5.Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections
（1）The Norman conquest started a continual flow of French words into English诺曼征服开始了法国词汇不断进入英语的洪流
（2）The situation of three languages(Latin,French,English)existing simultaneously continued for over a century三种语言并存的情况存在了一百多年
（3）Britain had trade relations with the low countries，especially Holland英国和低等国家有贸易关系，特别是荷兰
（4）Middle English retained much fewer inflections中世纪英语保留更少的转折
If we say that Old English was a language of full endings，Middle English was one of leveled endings. 如果我们说老英语是一种拥有完整结尾的语言,中世纪英语是一个水平结尾。
6.Modern English (1500-up to now): （1）Early（1500-1700）（2）late （1700-up to the present）
（1）In the early period of Modern English，known as the Renaissance，many new words taken by scholars from Latin and Greek entered into English许多是学者从拉丁文和希腊文中提取
（2）Latinate flavour of Modern English现代英语的拉丁风格。
（3）In the mid-seventeenth century，English absorbed words from all major languages of the world在十七世纪中期，英语从所有世界的主要语言中吸收词汇。
（4）Since the beginning of 20th century，more words are created by means of word-formation从本世纪初开始，更多的词通过构词法被创造出来
English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language. 英语已经由合成语言（古代英语）进化为现代分析语言
7. Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary three main sources：总体来说，有三条新词的主要来源
（1）the rapid development of modern science and technology （45 ％ ）现代科学和技术的迅猛发展
（2）social, economic and political changes（11 ％ ）社会，经济和政治的变化
（3）the influence of other cultures and languages（ 24 ％ ）其它文化和语言的影响
8.Modes of Vocabulary Development词汇发展的样式
（1）Creations: Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. 创造是指新词的构成通过使用现有的材料，也就是说，词根，词缀和其他元素。
（2）Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. 意义改变意味着一个老的形式获取新含义以便去应对新的需要。
（3）Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times. 借词曾经在词汇的发展中扮演了至关重要的角色，特别是在早期。
（4）Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant. 恢复的古词或者废弃的词也对英语词汇的成长做出了贡献。尽管收效甚微。
Chapter 3 Word Formation I
概念：词素、语素、语素变体
1.The minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.
the morpheme is ' the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words'.
最小的意义单位叫做“词素”。词素是“词语组成中最小的功能单位”。
2.Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.
词素是抽象的单位，在话语中被认知通过分开的单位，这单位叫做“语素”。
'They are actual spoken , minimal carriers of meaning'.
它们实际上是能发音的最小的意义载体。
The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.
语素是一个音素发音的词素。
3. Morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence .they are called monomorphemic words.
语素与词相同，由于它们能代表含义而且能够在句子中自由起作用。这种词叫做单一语素词 4. Morphemes which are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.
一些词素被按照语素在其中排列而认识，那些替换的语素被称为”语素变体”。
5.the morpheme of plurality |-s复数词素（－s）：tpk后面（-s）、dbgl后面（-z）、iz是在sz J, 3, tj, C13之后
the past tense过去形式 simple present 一般现在时 possessive 所有格 comparative or superlative degrees 比较级和最高级
6.（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (which are of other morphemes are considered to be free). 不依靠其他语素的语素是自由语素。这些语素自己有完整的意义可以在句子中当作自由的语法单位来使用。
（2）Bound Morphemes(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. They are bound to other morphemes to form words. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in 例子 不能作为独立词出现的语素是粘连语素。这样称呼因为它们粘连其他语素去构成单词。粘连语素主要出现在派生词中。
7. -ist“…的实践者”； -al表示“…的，关于…的”， -ize表示使成为；-ation表示： “动作”,“过程”， -ic与…有关的
8. Bound Morpheme includes two types粘连语素包括两种，粘连词根和词缀。: (1) bound root(粘附词根) +例子 (2)Affix(词缀)
(1) a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. 一个粘连词根是词中承担基础意义的部分，如同自由根词。和自由根词不同的是，他是一个粘连形式不得不与其他词素组合来构成单词。
In English, bound roots are either or Although they are limited in number, their productive power is amazing. 在英语中，粘连词根或者是拉丁语或者是希腊语。尽管它们数量有限，它们的生产力惊人。它们诞生了成千上万的派生词，在现代英语中。
(2)Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. 词缀是附属在单词上或者单词元素上以修改词语意义和功能的结构。
9. Affixes can be put into two groups: 根据词缀的功能，我们可以把它们分为“曲折词缀”和“派生词缀”。
1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes. 是附加在词尾用来表示屈折关系，因此被称为“屈折词素”。
2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 派生词缀是加在其他语素上建立新词的词缀。派生词缀可以分为前缀和后缀。
篇三：自考英语词汇学学习资料
Chapter one
(the two often quoted definitions from Bloomfield and an outstanding French linguist, Antoine Meillet. )
Bloomfield: ―some linguistic forms, which we call bound forms are never used as sentences. A word then, is a free form which does not consist entirely of (two or more) lesser free forms. In belief, a word is a minimum free form.‖
Antoine Meillet: ―A word is defined by the association of a given sense with a given group of sounds capable of a given grammatical use.‖
In brief, a word may be defined as a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both
All the words in a language together constitute what is known as its vocabulary.
1. Old English(449-1100) OE
The history of the English language begins with the conquest and settlement of what is now England by the Anglo Saxon, which replaced the Celtic spoken by the former inhabitants.
The next seven hundred years (449-1100) are known as the Old English (OE) or Anglo-Saxon (AS) period of the English language.
The vocabulary: Fifty or Sixty thousand words, which were chiefly Anglo-Saxon with a small mixture of Old Norse words.
Long before the invasion of England, Anglos-Saxon borrowed a considerable number of Latiin words and then continued to adopt words during the Old English period, especially after the introduction of Christianity into Britain in 579.
2. Middle English(1100-1500) ME
The transitional period from Old English to Modern English is known as Middle English, which is characterized by the strong influence of French following the Norman Conquest in 1066.
Since the French-speaking Normans were the ruling class, French was used for all state affairs and for most social and cultural matters; but the masses continued to speak English. Only toward the 15 century did English become once more the language of the whole country.
3. Modern English(1500- the present)
The English language from 1500 to the present is called Modern English.
In the early stage of Modern English (1500-1700) the Renaissance [ri?n?sns] brought great changes to the vocabulary.
The renewed study of Greek in the Renaissance not only led to the borrowing of Greek words indirectly through the medium of Latin, but also led to the introduction of some Greek words directly into the English vocabulary.
From the 16 century onward, English borrowed words from an increasing number of languages, the major ones being the three Romance languages, French, Spanish and Italian.
French: attaché, charge d‘ affairs, café.
Italian: (music, art and architecture) concert, duet, piano, solo, tenor; model, studio; dome, piazza. thth
Spanish: armada, cargo, cocoa, cigar.
English also adopted words from other European languages. Portuguese (caste, pagoda), German (bismuth, cobalt, nickel and zinc); Dutch (dock, freight, keel); Russian (Vodka, troika, ruble and tsar)
At the turn of the 19 and 20 centuries, as a result of exploration, colonization and trade, many words came in from non-European languages.
Example:
boomerang, kangaroo, dingo (Australian)
Sugar, sultan, alcohol (Arabic)
Coolie, cashmere khaki (Indian)
Schmozzo, schmaltz (herbrew)
As summed up in The Encyclopedia Americana: ―the English language has vast debits. In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed. The majority are likely to come from Latin, and of those more than half will come through French. A considerable number will derive directly or indirectly from Greek. A substantial contribution will come from Scandinavian languages, and a small percentage from Portuguese, Italian, Spanish and Dutch. Scattered words will be from various sources around the globe.‖
The Rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary (Especially after WW II) and its causes
After WW II, neologisms swept in at a rate much faster than that of the prewar period. The main reasons for the frequent appearance of neologisms are three:
1. Marked progress of science and technology. (nuclear bomb, exploration of space, computer science)
2. Socio-economic, political and cultural changes.
3. The influence of other cultures and languages.
A. By origin: native words and load words.
Native words: Words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of Old English are native English.
Loan Words: those borrowed from other languages are loan words or borrowed words.
Most native words in Modern English are monosyllabic. .[?m?n?usi?l?bik] 单音节的 they are from the great majority of the basic word stock of the English language.
The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over a number of epochs.
The fundamental features of the basic word stock are:
1. National character: words of the basic word stock belong to the people as a whole, not to a limited group no matter
what dialect they speak ; which social class they belong. .
2. Stability: As words in the basic word stock denote the commonest things necessary to life, they are likely to remain
unchanged. (However some old word had dropped out and some new words had in)
3. Word-forming ability: Basic words are very active in forming new words.
4. Ability to form collocation: Basic words combine readily with other words to form habitual expression and
phrases. .[h??bitju?l] 习惯性的
B. By the level of usage
1. Comment words: Common or popular words are words connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to
everyday life.
thth
The great majority of English words are common words. The core of the common words is the basic word stock.
2. Literary words: Literary words are chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official
documents or in formal speeches. They are comparatively seldom used in ordinary conversation.
Among the literary words, two categories are noteworthy:
(a) Archaic words: Archaic words are words no longer in common use, although retained for special purpose. (They
are sometimes employed in poetry, business letters, etc.)
Abed---in bed; behold---see; belike---probably; natheless---nevertheless; perchance---by chance.
Archaic word are marked as ―arch.―, which are different from obsolete words. Obsolete words are those
completely out of current use.
(b) Poetical words: Poetical words are words that are traditionally used only in poetry.
Array---outfit; the deep---the sea; stead---horse; morn---morning;
(c) Colloquial words: In contrast with literary words, colloquial words or expressions are used mainly in spoken
English, as in conversation among friends and colleagues. They can also be used in informal writings.
[k??l?ukwi?l] 口语的,
Examples:
Feeling fatigued, Tom retired early. (Literary)
Tom felt so dog-tired he hit the sack early. (Colloquial)
John was dismissed for petty thieving. (Common)
John was fired for petty thieving. ( Colloquial )
(d) Slang words: Slang is defined in the SCD as ―language, words or phrases of a vigorous, colourful, facetious, or
taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard
vocabulary.‖
(e) Technical words: Technical or special words refer to those words used in various special fields. Every branch of
science, every profession or trade, art, etc.
3. By notion: function words and content words:
(A) Function words: Function words are often short words such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries,
and so forth.
They do not have much lexical meaning and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own;
They serve grammatically more than anything else.
They belong to a relatively small and permanent set of words. The total number of function words is about 154.
(B) Content words: They have independent lexical meaning, they are the nouns, main verbs, adjectives and adverbs
of a language.
Chapter TWO: Morphological Structure of English Words
1. Morpheme: The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. EXAMPLE: denationalization-----de+nation+al+iz+action
A morpheme is also a two-facet language unit which possesses both sound and meaning.
A morpheme is not identical (同一的) with a syllable ([?sil?bl] 音节), either, since the latter has nothing to do with meaning. as conditioned by position or adjoining sound. [?al?m?:f]: (词素变体) <any of two or more actual representations of a morpheme, such as the plural endingss(as in bats),z(as in bugs), and?z(as in buses) >
2. (Generally two main types: Free morphemes, Bound morphemes.)
A. Free Morpheme: is one that can be uttered [??t?]说,讲alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound
morpheme.
A free morpheme is a word, in the traditional sense.
B. Bound Morpheme: cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appear with a least one other morpheme, free
or bound.
EXAMPLE: un---unkind; -ly---happily; re---receive; s---dogs; ex—boxes;ed---worked.
Alternatively, morphemes may be divided into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes)
C. Roots: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.
Roots therefore, are the cores of English words. Historically the root is the earliest form of a word. Root are either free or bound
a) Free roots: In English, many roots are free morphemes. Free roots belong to the basic word-stock, and have the
fundamental features of the basic word-stock. A free roots consists one morpheme.
b) Bound roots: They are not words, and so are not free morphemes; they cannot exist on their own. < Nor can they be
used to form new words, because these items have no identity outside the small group of words in which they appear. >
A root, weather it is free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a wo
D. Affixes: Affix is a collective term for the type of formative (构形成分) that can be used only when added to another
morpheme. < is a form that is attached to words or a word element to modify meaning or lunation. >
Affixes, therefore, are considered bound morphemes. They may be divided into inflectional and derivational types. 曲折词缀 [?deri?vei??n?l] 派生词缀
a) Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes): An inflectional affix serves to express such meaning as plurality
[plu??r?liti] , tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. They have only their particular grammatical meaning.
Inflectional affix does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is affixed.
The number of inflectional affixes is small and fixed; no new ones have been added since 1500.
b) Derivational affixes (or derivational morphemes): When they are added to another morpheme, they derived a new
word.
Many derivational affixes have a specific lexical meaning; or more than one meaning.
Derivational affixes have not only independent lexical meaning but also affective meaning.
There are also derivational affixes which can be attached to words of different word-classes.
The number of derivational affixes, although limited, is much larger than that of inflectional affixes.
1) Prefixes: affixes before the word are called prefixes.
2) Suffixes: affixes after the word are called suffixes.
Both prefixes and suffixes may be grouped according to:
1)
OE words.) and Foreign affixes (came as a part of loan words from foreign languages.)
Native affixes: un-, mix-, be-, out-, over-, -ness, -dom, -hood, -ly, -er.
Foreign affixes: ab-, bi-, dis-, re-, kilo-, poly-, mal-, mal-, -ic, -ism, -ist, -able, ize,
Hybrid: Most foreign prefixes and suffixes have long since become naturalized in English, and many word
have been formed form elements of mixed origins. <A hybrid is a word made up of elements from two or
more different languages.>
EXAMPLE: goddess, rewrite, unjust, stately, maltreat, liquidize, comically, remac, adamized.
Some affixes like –al, -ic, -ive and –ous, which are among the most common adjective suffixes, are attached
mainly to borrowed and neo-classical words.
2) Their productivity: Affixes are called productive or living when they can be used to form new words. Those
that are no longer used to form new words are termed dead or unproductive.
EXAMPLE:
Productive: re-, nu-, -able, -ize.
Unproductive: for-, with-, -ant, -ent,
Free—Free root Bound root
Bound Inflecgtional affixes
Derivational affixes
Suffixes Prefixes
The above diagram shows that there are, in fact, only two main groups of morphemes, free and bound, because all the other morphemes (such as roots and affixes) are subordinate to either of them.
(On the morphemic level, words can be classified into: simple, complex and compound words.)According to the number and type of morphemes they contain, words can be classified into:
1) Simple words: those consisting of a single morpheme. E.g.) man, work, kind.
2) Derived words: those which are the result of a derivational process. E.g.) fruitless, fruitful, unfruitful.
<Such words usually consist of a free morpheme and one (or more than one) bound morpheme.>
3) forget-me-not, maid-of-all-walk, jack of all trades.
Morphemes are important in the word-building process because the two most central and productive word-formation processed, compounding and affixation, are related to morphemes: the former is a combination of free morphemes; the latter is the addition (加入) of bound morphemes to free ones.
Chapter Three: Word-Formation (I)
The various processes can be classified on the basis of frequency of usage, into major or minor processes.
The major processes are three: compounding; derivation; conversion.
The minor processes are eight: acronym; blending; clipping; words from proper names; back-formation; reduplication;